Exploring discourses of indigeneity and rurality in Mikea Forest environmental governance

Authors

  • Amber R. Huff The University of Georgia 250A Baldwin Hall, Jackson Street Athens, Georgia, USA 30602-1619

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.4314/mcd.v7i2S.2

Keywords:

indigeneity, rurality, foragers, discourse, identity, representation, conservation, governance, Mikea

Abstract

ABSTRACT

This article examines discourses of indigeneity and rurality that define and classify different categories of resource users in the context of Mikea Forest environmental governance. Many Malagasy peoples live in, have deep cultural ties with, and directly depend on the island’s forests, but Mikea people are the only to be legally recognized as ‘indigenous peoples’ as defined by Operational Directive 4.20 of the World Bank. In policy documents, scholarship, and media productions, Mikea people are represented as a small, culturally distinct population of primitive forest foragers. In contrast, other subsistence producers living in the region are represented as invasive and harmful to Mikea people and the Mikea Forest environment. However, there are significant incongruities between these representations and local history, cultural norms, and social-environmental realities. While the intent of international norms for indigenous rights in conservation and development contexts is to mitigate risk of harm and improve democratic participation among historically underrepresented peoples, this case highlights how imposed notions of indigeneity can in some cases actually increase local vulnerabilities. Mikea Forest environmental policies should be amended to mitigate risk of insecurities faced by a broad range of forest residents, Mikea and non-Mikea, due to socio-political exclusions, restricted livelihoods, and reduced territorial rights.

 

RÉSUMÉ

L’objectif de cet article est d’examiner comment dans le cadre de la mise en place de politiques publiques à l’échelle de la forêt des Mikea, et dans les discours sur l’indigénisme et la ruralité qui y sont associés, sont définies et classifiées les différentes catégories d’utilisateurs des ressources. De nombreux malgaches vivent, ont des attaches culturelles et dépendent directement des îlots forestiers pour leur subsistance ; néanmoins seuls les Mikea sont légalement reconnus comme des « peuples autochtones » tels que définis par la directive opérationnelle 4.20 de la Banque Mondiale et auraient dés lors des droits particulier sur le territoire et les forêts. Dans les textes des politiques environnementales ou dans les médias, les Mikea sont présentés comme une population autochtone au mode de vie originel et détentrice d’une culture inédite tandis que les populations voisines sont perçues comme des envahisseurs perturbant l’organisation sociale et les forêts des Mikea. Toutefois, il existe des décalages importants entre ces représentations et les réalités du terrain : les fondements de l’identité locale ne correspondent pas aux définitions officielles de l’autochtonie présentée dans les documents du développement. Les Mikea et les populations voisines sont en fait largement interdépendants et tous pratiquent un éventail d’activités économiques fondées sur les facteurs de saisonnalité, les compétences ou les demandes du marché. Contrairement aux représentations officielles présentant la culture des Mikea comme unique et autonome, ceux-ci appartiennent aux mêmes clans et partagent les mêmes pratiques que leurs voisins jugés illégitimes au regard de la gestion des territoires. L’histoire montre en outre une longue participation des peuples Mikea aux échanges commerciaux régionaux et mondiaux et des échanges constants avec les missionnaires. L’objectif des normes internationales pour les droits des peuples autochtones est de réduire les risques de vulnérabilité et d’améliorer la participation démocratique des peuples sous-représentés dans les instances officielles ; notre recherche montre au contraire que les notions imposées de l’autochtonie peuvent dans certaines situations accentuer les vulnérabilités des peuples à l’échelle locale. Les politiques environnementales concernant la forêt Mikea devraient être améliorées pour prendre en compte les insécurités rencontrées par une grande partie des résidents de la forêt, Mikea et non Mikea. Les acteurs de la conservation et du développement pourraient parvenir à mettre en place des politiques plus justes et plus démocratiques, et devraient chercher à atténuer les conséquences négatives des politiques déjà en place.

 

Author Biography

Amber R. Huff, The University of Georgia 250A Baldwin Hall, Jackson Street Athens, Georgia, USA 30602-1619

Temporary Assistant Professor, Department of Anthropology

References

Adger, W. N., T. A. Benjaminsen, K. Brown, and H. Svarstad. 2001. Advancing a political ecology of global environmental discourses. Development and Change 32:681-715.

Anaya, S. J. 1991. Indigenous rights norms in contemporary international law. Arizona Journal of International and Comparative Law 8:1-39.

Anaya, S. J. 2004. International human rights and indigenous peoples: the move toward the multicultural state. Arizona Journal of International and Comparative Law 21:13-61.

Astuti, R. 1995a. People of the Sea: Identity and Descent among the Vezo of Madagascar. New York, Cambridge University Press.

Astuti, R. 1995b. "The Vezo are not a kind of people": identity, difference, and "ethnicity" among a fishing people of western Madagascar. American Ethnologist 22:464-482.

Astuti, R. 2000. Kindreds, cognatic and unilineal descent groups: new perspectives from Madagascar. Pages 90-103 in J. Carsten, editor. Cultures of Relatedness: New Approaches to the Study of Kinship. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

Astuti, R., and P. Harris. 2008. Understanding mortality and the life of the ancestors in rural Madagascar. Cognitive Science 32:713-740.

Aubry, C., and A. Ramaromisy. 2003. Typology of farms in a village of the pioneer settlement area of the Mikea Forest (South West of Madagascar). Cahiers Agricultures 12:153-165.

Batterbury, S. 2001. Landscapes of diversity: a local political ecology of livelihood diversification in south-western Niger. Ecumene 8:437-464.

Berg, G. M. 1977. The myth of racial strife and Merina kinglists: the transformation of texts. History in Africa 4:1-30.

Birkeli, E. 1920. The Bantu in Madagascar: the Malagasy race affinity. Journal of the Royal African Society 19:305-316.

Birkeli, E. 1936. A la recherche des Vazimba, des Beosi, et des Mikea de la cote ouest de Madagascar. Pages 7-13. Mémoirs de l'academie Malgache. L'Academie Malgache, Paris.

Blanc-Pamard, C. 2002. Territoire et patrimonie dans le Sud-Ouest de Madagascar: une construction sociale in M. C. Cormier-Salem, editor. Patrimonialiser la nature tropicale. IRD, Paris.

Blanc-Pamard, C. 2009. The Mikea Forest under threat (southwest Madagascar): How public policy leads to conflicting territories. Field Actions Science Report 3.

Blanc-Pamard, C., P. Milleville, M. Grouzis, F. Lasry, and S. Razanaka. 2005. Une alliance de disciplines sur une question environnmentale: la déforestation en forêt des Mikea (Sud-Ouest de Madagascar). Natures Sciences Sociétés 13:7-20.

Blench, R. 2008. The Austronesians in Madagascar and their interaction with the Bantu of the East African coast: Surveying the linguistic evidence for domestic and translocated animals. Studies in Philippine Languages and Cultures 18:18-43.

Bloch, M. 1971. Placing the Dead: Tombs, Ancestral Villages, and Kinship Organization in Madagascar. New York, Seminar Press.

Bodin, Ö., M. Tengö, A. Norman, J. Lundberg, and T. Elmqvist. 2006. The value of small size: Loss of forest patches and ecological thresholds in southern Madagascar. Ecological Applications 16:440-451.

Bowen, J. R. 2000. Should we have a universal concept of 'indigenous peoples' rights'?: ethnicity and essentialism in the twenty-first century. Anthropology Today 16:12-16.

Brosius, P. 1999. Analyses and interventions: anthropological engagements with environmentalism. Current Anthropology 40:277-310.

Brosius, P., A. L. Tsing, and C. Zerner. 1998. Representing communities: histories and politics of community-based natural resource management. Society and Natural Resources 11:157-168.

Campbell, G. 1992. Crisis of faith and colonial conquest: the impact of famine and disease in late nineteenth-century Madagascar. Cahiers d'Études Africaines 32:409-453.

Coe, M. 1998. Review: Ecology and economy of a tropical dry forest in Madagascar (Edited by Ganzhorn, J. and Sorg, J.). Biodiversity Conservation 83:382.

Colchester, M. 2010. Free, Prior and Informed Consent: Making FPIC work for forests and peoples. The Forest Dialogue, New Haven.

Cole, J. 2001. Forget colonialism? Sacrifice and the art of memory. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

Dear, C., and S. McCool. 2010. Causes and consequences of displacement decision-making in Banhine National Park, Mozambique. Conservation and Society 8:103-111.

Dina, J. 2001. The hazomanga among the Masikoro of southwesr Madagascar: identity and history. Ethnohistory 48:13-30.

Dugal, S. 2004. What's the Story With Vazimba?: Oral History, Social Change, and Identity in Highland Madagascar. Department of Anthropology. Tulane University, New Orleans.

Durbin, J. 1999. Lemurs as flagships for conservation in Madagascar. Pages 269-295 in B. Rakotosamimanana, H. Rasamimanana, J. Ganzhorn, and S. Goodman, editors. New Directions in Lemur Studies. Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, New York.

EauxetForets. 2003. Evaluation environnementale du programme environnemental III. Repoblikan'i Madagasikara, Antananarivo.

Emoff, R. 2002. Recollecting From the Past: Musical Practice and Spirit Possession on the East Coast of Madagascar. Wesleyan University Press, Middletown, CT.

Faroux, E., and J.-F. Rabedimy. 1985. Note sur un groupe "Mikea" de la région de Salara. Equipe de Recherche Associée MRSTD/ORSTOM.

Feeley-Harnik, G. 1986. "Ritual and work in Madagascar," in Madagascar Society and History. Edited by C. Kottak, J.-A. Rakotoarisoa, A. Southall, and P. Vérin, pp. 157-174. Durham, Carolina Academic Press.

Ferguson, B. 2009. REDD comes into fashion in Madagascar. Madagascar Conservation & Development 4:132-137.

FTM, and M. N. Parks. 2009. Carte Zonage du Parc National Mikea (PNMKA). FTM, Toliara, Madagascar.

Ganzhorn, J., P. I. Lowry, G. Schatz, and S. Sommer. 2001. The biodiversity of Madagascar:One of the world's hottest hotspots on its way out. Oryx 35:346-348.

Goedefroit, S. 1998. A l'ouest de Madagascar: Les Sakalava du Menabe. Karthala-IRD, Paris.

Goodland, R. 2004. Free, prior and informed consent and the World Bank Group. Sustainable Development 4:66-74.

Graeber, D. 1999. Painful memories. Pages 319-365 in K. Middleton, editor. Ancestors, Power and History in Madagascar. Brill, Leiden.

Graeber, D. 2007. Lost People: Magic and the Legacy of Slavery in Madagascar. Indiana University Press, Bloomington.

Grandidier, G. 1920. Madagascar. Geographical Review 10:197-222.

Hannah, L., B. Rakotosamimanana, J. Ganzhorn, R. A. Mittermeier, S. Olivieri, L. Iyer, S. Rajaobelina, J. Hough, F. Andriamialisoa, I. Bowles, and G. Tilkin. 1998. Participatory planning, scientific priorities, and landscape conservation in Madagascar. Environmental Conservation 25:30-36.

Hardin, G. 1968. The tragedy of the commons. Science 162:1243-1248.

Harper, G. J., M. K. Steininger, C. J. Tucker, D. Juhn, and F. Hawkins. 2007. Fifty years of deforestation and forest fragmentation in Madagascar. Environmental Conservation 34:325-333.

Herzfeld, M. 1998. Factual fissures: claims and contexts. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 560:69-82.

Herzfeld, M. 2001. Anthropology: Theoretical Practice in Culture and Society. Blackwell Publishers Inc., Malden, MA.

Hodgson, D. L. 2002. Introduction: Comparative perspectives on the indigenous rights movement in Africa and the Americas. American Anthropologist 104:1037-1049.

Hoerner, J. M. 1981. Tulear et le Sud-ouest de Madagascar: Approche Demographique. Madagascar Revue de Geographie 39:9-49.

Hoerner, J. M. 1987. Le "boom" de coton de 1982 a 1986 in M. Fieloux, and J. Lombard, editors. Études des Transformations Socio-Économics dans le Sud-ouest Malgache: L'Exemple du Couloir Antseva. MRSTD/ORSTOM, Antananarivo/Paris.

Kelly, R. L., and L. Poyer. 1999. The Mikea of Madagascar. Pages 215-219 in R. B. Lee, and R. Daly, editors. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Hunters and Gatherers. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

Koechlin, B. 1975. Les Vezo du sud-ouest de Madagascar, contribution a l'etudede l'ecosysteme de semi-nomades Marins. Cahier de l'Homme XV:51-54.

Kull, C. 2002. The "degraded" Tapia Woodlands of Highland Madagascar: rural economy, fire ecology, and forest conservation. Journal of Cultural Geography 19:95-128.

Lambek, M. 1998. The Sakalava poiesis of history: realizing the past through spirit possession in Madagascar. American Ethnologist 25:106-127.

Lambek, M., and A. Walsh. 1997. The imagined community of Antankarana: identity, history, and ritual in northern Madagascar. Journal of Religion in Africa 27:308-333.

Laurance, W. F. 1999. Reflections on the tropical deforestation crisis. Biological Conservation 91:109-117.

Leach, M., and R. Mearns. 1996. Environmental change and policy. Pages 1-33 in M. Leach, and R. Mearns, editors. The Lie of the Land: Challenging Received Wisdom on the African Environment. James Currey Press, Oxford.

Lee, R. B., and R. K. Hitchcock. 2001. African hunter-gatherers: Survival, history and the politics of identity. African Study Monographs 26:257-280.

Malzac, V., and F. Callet 1908. Tantara ny Andriana eto Madagascar. Imprimerie Officielle, Paris.

Middleton, K. 1999. Who killed 'Malagasy cactus'? Science, environment and colonialism in southern Madagascar. Journal of Southern African Studies 25:215-248.

Milleville, P., M. CGrouzis, S. Razanaka, and M. Bertrand. 2001. La culture pionniere du maîs sur abattis-brulis (hatsaky) dans le sud-ouest de madagascar. Pages 255-268 in S. Razanaka, M. Grouzis, P. Milleville, B. Moizo, and C. Aubry, editors. Sociétés paysannes, transitions agraires, et dynamiques écologiques dans le sud-ouest de Madagascar. CNRE/IRD, Antananarivo.

Mittermeier, R. A., J. Ganzhorn, W. R. Konstant, K. Glander, I. Tattersall, C. Groves, A. B. Rylands, A. Hapke, J. Ratsinbazafy, M. I. Mayor, E. E. Louis, Y. Rumpler, C. Schwitzer, and R. Rasoloarison. 2008. Lemur diversity in Madagascar. International Journal of Primatology 29:1607-1656.

Mouyon, J.-C., and P. Francelle. 1999a. Au sud-ouest de grande-île, feu, les Mikea. Korail: Magazine de la Cooperation Regionale 32:44-47.

Mouyon, J.-C., and P. Francelle. 1999b. Feu Mikea. L'express de Madagascar, 29 June 1999.

Myers, N. 1992. Tropical forests: the policy challenge. The Environmentalist 12:15-27.

Myers, N., R. Mittermeier, C. Mittermeier, G. Fonesca, and J. Kents. 2000. Biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities. Nature 403:853-858.

Neumann, R. P. 1997. Primitive ideas: protected area buffer zones and the politics of land in Africa. Development and Change 28:559-582.

Norris, S. 2006. Madagascar defiant. Bioscience 56:960-965.

Ottino, P. 1963. Les économies paysannes malgaches du Bas-Mangoky. Éditions Berger-Levrault, Paris.

Pelican, M. 2009. Complexities of indigeneity and autochthony: an African example. American Ethnologist 36:52-65.

Raik, D. 2007. Forest management in Madagascar: An historical overview. Madagascar Conservation & Development 2:5-10.

Rarojo, J. 1998. Ny Mikea: tsy lolo. Vintsy 26.

Redford, K. 1991. The ecologically noble savage. Orion Nature Quarterly 9:26-29.

Repoblikan'i Madagasikara, Ministere de l'environnement, des eaux et forets and Madagascar National Parks. 2010a. Plan de developpement de la population autochtone Mikea, vol. 2. World Bank.

Repoblikan'i Madagasikara, Ministere de l'environnement, des eaux et forets and Madagascar National Parks. 2010b. Cadre fonctionnel de procedures de sauvegarde pour le projet de creation du parc national Mikea, vol. 3. World Bank.

Reyneke, L., and T. Wallmach. 2007. Characterization of FeTi-oxide species occurring in Ranobe heavy mineral deposit, Madagascar. The 6th International Heavy Minerals Conference: Back to Basics. The South African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, South Africa.

Sarafaty, G. A. 2005. The World Bank and the internalization of indigenous rights norms. The Yale Law Journal 114:1791-1818.

Seddon, N., J. Tobias, J. Yount, J. Ramanampamonjy, S. Buchart, and H. Randrianizahana. 2000. Conservation issues and priorities in the Mikea Forest of south-west Madagascar. Oryx 34:287-304.

Sharp, L. 1995. Playboy princely spirits of Madagascar: possession as youthful commentary and social critique. Anthropological Quarterly 68:75-88.

Sirven, N. 2006. Endogenous social capital and self-rated health: cross-sectional data from rural areas of Madagascar. Social Science & Medicine 63:1489-1502.

Smith, A., N. Horning, and D. Moore. 1997. Regional biodiversity planning and lemur conservation in western Madagascar. Conservation Biology 11:498.

Stiles, D. 1991. Tubers and tenrecs: the Mikea of southwestern Madagascar. Ethnology 30:251-263.

Stiles, D. 1998. The Mikea Hunter-Gathers of Southwest Madagascar: Ecology and Socioeconomics. African Study Monographs 19:127-148.

Styger, E., J. Rakotoarimanana, R. Rabevohitra, and E. Fernandes. 1999. Indigenous fruit trees of Madagascar: potential components of agroforestry systems to improve human nutrition and restore biological diversity. Agroforestry Systems 46:289-310.

Tucker, B. 2001. The behavioral ecology and economics of variation, risk, and diversification among Mikea forager-farmers of Madagascar. Department of Anthropology. University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill.

Tucker, B. 2003. Mikea origins: relics or refugees? in Z. Crossland, G. Sodikoff, and W. Griffen, editors. Lova/inheritance: past and present in Madagascar. Michigan Discussions in Anthropology.

Tucker, B., A. Huff, Tsiazonera, J. Tombo, P. Hajasoa, and C. Nagnisaha. 2011. When the wealthy are poor: poverty explanations and local perspectives in southwestern Madagascar. American Anthropologist 113:291-305.

Wilmsen, E. N. 1989. Land Filled With Flies: a Political Economy of the Kalahari. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago.

WorldBank. 1991. Operational Directive 4.20: Indigenous Peoples in W. Bank, editor. World Bank, Geneva.

WWF. 2003. Cadre strategique pour le developpement des populations autochtones Mikea. World Bank and the République de Madagascar, Antananarivo, Madagascar.

Yount, J., Tsiazonera, and B. Tucker. 2001. Constructing Mikea identity: past or present links to forest and foraging. Ethnohistory 48:257-291.

Zeller, M., C. Lapenu, B. Minten, E. Ralison, D. Randrianaivo, and C. Randrianarisoa. 2000. Pathways of rural development in Madagascar: an empirical investigation of the critical triangle of environmental sustainability, economic growth, and poverty alleviation, FCND discussion paper no. 82. Food Consumption and Nutrition Division, International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington, DC.

Mikea Forest. Journal MCD

Downloads

Published

28-07-2012

Issue

Section

Articles